It seems my linguistic knowledge is lacking and letting me down after scoring only a low B grade for my mock exam. More linguistic features required and much more theory, so here goes a blog containing my revision notes for substratum, random fluctuation and cultural transmission, lexical gaps, determinism/reflectionism, functional theory and s-curve and wave models.
Substratum
The theory that focuses on the influences of different language forms that can come into contact with English, and this is mainly through the the languages of non-native speakers or regional dialects. 'Like' is an example of this as it has made its way into British English through American television and films and is now common in British dialects, especially amongst the younger generations who are possibly more heavily influenced by these media forms.
There is also the idea that immigration has this effect on English, with non-native speakers bringing words from their native tongue into their adopted one, this can also be reversed as conquerors have brought new words into language, specifically with English, the Norman invasion of 1066, brought French into Middle English and was adopted by the ruling classes and adapted into the higher social classes and linked to education and religion. However, it can also be said that the British had this effect during the time of the British Empire and so English words were adopted into Hindi, but also words such as 'juggernaut' were 'borrowed' into English.
It is also notable that 2nd generation speakers of these new adaptations that will find their way into the foundations of the language may have a tendency to over pronounce certain sounds. This could be an example of 'youth culture' finding its own identity away from that of their parents. Evidence of this was cited in Jean Aitchison's Language Change Progress or Decay, with 2nd generation Jewish and Italian immigrants, hypercorrecting their language, which went on to form the distinctive New York accent. This information is based on William Labov's study of Jewish communities in New York.
Hypercorrection- is a phonological change within language, through the adoption of an incorrect emphasis or pattern of pronunciation due to the speaker believing they are using the 'high-presitge' form of the word.
Random fluctuation and cultural transmission
"fashions in language are as unpredictable as fashions in clothes"
Charles Hocket (1958) devised a theory that put significance on random errors and events as having a influence on language change. Suggesting that language change occurs due to the unstable nature of language itself. The theory suggests that changes that occur within language do so to the constant changing context of the language itself and its users.
An example of this as mentioned in the AQA English Language A textbook, is that the word 'book' became a replacement for the word 'cool' due to mobile phone predictive text corrections, which is a random way for a word to have changed usage!
Lexical Gaps
This theory suggests that there is a logical reason for words to be created to 'fill a gap', and can be viewed as a way of viewing possible directions that language change may take in the future. 'Gaps' referred to here are words or phrases that are currently not occupied in English language usage , but fit the current patterns within the language.
Reflectionism and Determinism
The Sapir-Whorf theory. Reflectionism in language is based on the theory that a person's language reflects their way of thinking, so someone who uses derogatory slurs such as 'Paki', could be said to be using language that reflects their prejudice towards immigrants. Conversely, Determinism is based on the idea that if people can be persuaded not to use such terms, but ones that are seen as more acceptable, i.e. exchanging 'Paki' for 'Asian', can determine a new way of thinking, and this forms the basis on which political correctness is formed. Words such as 'nigger' and 'pikey' seen as slurs are exchanged for words with more positive connotations such as 'African-American' or 'Gypsy/Romany' and are therefore perceived as being less offensive in ttheir usage, and to those ethnic minorities they are being used to represent.
Functional Theory
The theory suggest that language always changes and adapts to the needs of its users. Changes in technology and industry often fuel the need for new words. Words fall out of usage, such as 'vinyl' for records and are replaced by initialisms such as M.P.3 Colloquialisms and slang also manifests changes, creating new words or new usages and then discarding them as they strive for social identity and/or personal/group expression.
S-Curve Model
S-curve is the model based on the idea that language change can occur at a slow pace creating the initial curve of the 'S' and then increases speed as it becomes more common and accepted in the language. This can then slow down again once it has fully integrated in the language and is widely used. This model is based on Chen (1968/1972) who asserted that a language change would be picked up a certain rate by users before spreading into wider language usage, then slowing, this change can be be measured on a chart and will produce a curve resembling the letter 'S'.
Wave Model
Baliey (1973) suggested a model that geographical distance can have an effect on language change. Just as someone close to the epicentre of an earthquake will feel the tremors, a person or group close to the epicentre of a language change will pick it up, whereas a person or group further away from the centre of the change is less likely to adopt it. i.e. a word adapted or adopted by multicultural youths in London is unlikely to affect white middle class speakers in Edinburgh, as they are removed from the epicentre both culturally and socially.
